Legal and Jurisprudential Study of Moharebeh in Imami Jurisprudence

Koosha, Jafar

doi:10.22034/api.2026.2083137.1636

Legal and Jurisprudential Study of Moharebeh in Imami Jurisprudence

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Jafar Koosha

Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

10.22034/api.2026.2083137.1636

Abstract

Objective: The objective of this study is to examine the juristic and historical background of the crime of moharebeh (waging war against God) and to analyze the correspondence between the principles of Imami (Ja‘fari) jurisprudence and its legal treatment in Iran’s criminal laws, particularly the Islamic Penal Code. The study seeks to demonstrate how jurisprudential foundations have influenced the conceptualization and identification of moharebeh in the process of drafting criminal legislation.
Method: This research adopts a library-based (documentary) method. The analysis is conducted through the examination of Qur’anic verses, hadith sources, classical texts of Imami jurisprudence, and the criminal laws of Iran across three legislative periods: the Law of Hudud and Qisas and Its Regulations (1982), the Islamic Penal Code (1991), and the Islamic Penal Code (2013).
Results: The study indicates that the concept of moharebeh originates from verse 33 of Surah al-Ma’idah and, within Imami jurisprudence, is defined as a crime that threatens public security. An examination of the historical evolution of legislation shows that, in certain periods, the legislator has deviated from the original Qur’anic meaning of moharebeh and expanded its scope. In some instances, such expansion appears inconsistent with the principle of strict interpretation applied to hudud crimes. Nevertheless, the findings also reveal that Imami jurisprudence has played a significant role in shaping the legal provisions related to moharebeh within Iran’s criminal justice system.
Conclusion: The results suggest that although moharebeh has clear Qur’anic origins, various interpretations have emerged during the legislative process in Iran. In certain periods, the expansion of its legal scope has extended beyond traditional jurisprudential foundations, creating a degree of divergence from its precise Qur’anic and juristic meaning. Despite this, the influence of Imami jurisprudence on the overall framework of criminalizing moharebeh in Iranian criminal law remains evident.

Keywords

Mohareb

Moharebeh

Hudud

Islamic Penal Code

Subjects

امام خمینی. (۱۴۰۰). تحریر الوسیله (ج ۲، کتاب الحدود). تهران: مؤسسه تنظیم و نشر آثار امام خمینی.

حر عاملی، محمد بن حسن. وسائل الشیعه (ج ۱۸، باب حد المحارب). بیروت: دار احیاء التراث العربی.

حلی، حسن بن یوسف (علامه حلی). قواعد الأحکام فی معرفة الحلال و الحرام (ج ۲، مبحث الحدود). قم: مؤسسة النشر الإسلامی.

قرآن کریم.

شهید ثانی، زین‌الدین بن علی. شرح اللمعه (ج ۹، باب حد محاربه). بیروت: دار احیاء التراث العربی.

شهید ثانی، زین‌الدین بن علی. مسالک الأفهام (ج ۱۴، کتاب الحدود). قم: مؤسسة النشر الإسلامی.

طوسی، محمد بن حسن. المبسوط فی فقه الإمامیة (ج ۸، مبحث الحدود). تهران: دارالکتب الإسلامیة.

طوسی، محمد بن حسن. تهذیب الأحکام (ج ۱۰، باب حدود المحاربین). تهران: دارالکتب الإسلامیة.

کلینی، محمد بن یعقوب. الکافی (ج ۷، کتاب الحدود). تهران: دارالکتب الإسلامیة.

نجفی، محمدحسن. جواهر الکلام فی شرح شرائع الإسلام (ج ۴۱، مبحث حد محاربه). بیروت: دار إحیاء التراث العربی.

Ardabili, M. A. (2020). Specific criminal law (Vol. 2, 16th ed.). Mizan Publications.

Bassiouni, M. C. (2019). Crimes and justice in Islamic law. Cambridge University Press.

Ghobadi, N. (2022). The evolution of the concept of moharebeh in Iranian legislation. Journal of Islamic Jurisprudence and Law Research, (31).

Hashemi Shahroudi, S. M. (2019). The crime of moharebeh in Islamic jurisprudence and Iranian criminal law. Journal of Jurisprudence Studies, (21), Summer.

Hoseinipour, E. (2023). Jurisprudential analysis of the rule “hudud are repelled by doubts”. Journal of Jurisprudence and Principles of Law, (55), Winter.

Jafari Langaroudi, M. J. (2022). Terminology of law (32nd ed.). Ganj-e Danesh Publications.

Kamali, M. H. (2003). Principles of Islamic jurisprudence. Islamic Texts Society.

Kolayni, M. ibn Yaqub. (n.d.). Al-Kafi (Vol. 7, Kitab al-Hudud). Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah.

Najafi, M. H. (n.d.). Jawahir al-kalam fi sharh sharai al-Islam (Vol. 41, Section on the punishment of moharebeh). Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, Beirut.

Norbaha, R. (2023). Fundamentals of general criminal law (20th ed.). Dadgostar Publications.

Oxford Islamic Studies. (2020). Quran and criminal justice in Islam. Oxford University Press.

Rasemi, A. (2021). Comparative study of the crime of moharebeh in Imami jurisprudence and the Islamic Penal Code. Quarterly Journal of Criminal Law Studies, (45), Spring.

Reinhart, K. (1995). Before revelation: The boundaries of Muslim moral thought. State University of New York Press.

Sabouri, M. (2021). Analysis of the crime of moharebeh and its relationship with corruption on earth. Criminal Law Knowledge Journal, (12), Winter.

Schacht, J. (1982). An introduction to Islamic law. Oxford University Press.

Shams al-Din, Z. (al-Shahid al-Thani). (n.d.). Sharh al-lumah (Vol. 9, Section on moharebeh). Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi.

Tabrizi, Z. al-Din (al-Shahid al-Thani). (n.d.). Masalik al-afham (Vol. 14, Kitab al-Hudud). Islamic Publishing Institute, Qom.

Tusi, M. ibn Hasan. (n.d.). Al-mabsut fi fiqh al-Imamiyyah (Vol. 8, Section on hudud). Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah, Tehran.

Tusi, M. ibn Hasan. (n.d.). Tahdhib al-ahkam (Vol. 10, Chapter on the punishments for moharebeh). Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah.

Helli, A. (Allamah). (n.d.). Qawaid al-ahkam fi marifat al-halal wa-al-haram (Vol. 2, Section on hudud). Islamic Publishing Institute, Qom.

Khomeini, R. (Ayatollah Imam). (2021). Tahrir al-wasila (Vol. 2, Kitab al-Hudud). The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeinis Works.

Sajadinia, H. (2023). Moharebeh and terrorism in Iran’s criminal system. Judicial Law Journal, (87), Autumn.

The Holy Quran.

al-Hurr al-Amili, M. (n.d.). Wasail al-shiah (Vol. 18, Chapter on the punishment of moharebeh). Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, Beirut.